Translator: Davood Salehan
Source: rasekhoon.net







 


43 years (1805-1848) history of “Muhammad Ali” government can be divided into three phases:
1. The period of progression and consolidation of power that was ended in 1811 with the massacre of the kings.
2. The period of authority in Egypt and consolidation of power bases in the region (1811-1831)
3. The period of hostilities with the Ottoman Empire and the military adventures (1832 1848)
The year of 1811 was the beginning of the emergence of “Muhammad Ali” as a regional power. In the same year, in order to suppress the rebellion of Wahhabis in Saudi Arabia, the central government of the Ottoman Empire invocated “Muhammad Ali” and then he brought his army to this land. This was a suspicious and dangerous work caused to facilitate way to convert “Muhammad Ali” as a regional power and his following movements in the Middle East and North Africa.
However, the army finally defeated the Wahhabis in 1818 and it raised the happiness for “Babaali”. One year later, “Muhammad Ali” signed a treaty with the Imam of Yemen and extended his influence to the shores of the Red Sea. Wahhabis recaptured Najd in 1824 but Hejaz was still remained in the official territory of the Ottoman Empire.
During the war, “Muhammad Ali” modernized his army and he appointed some escapee French officers at the head of it. The chief of general staff of “Mohammad Ali” army was a deposed colonel of French army called “Colonel Seves” that he was known with name of "Suleiman Pasha". The body of the army was slaves.
In 1820, “Muhammad Ali” marched to Sudan in the search of “gold and slaves” and occupied most of this land until 1822. Then he occupied Crete and Cyprus (in 1824) and Athens (in 1827, June) by the request of Algeria Sultan. The Sultan donated Crete government to “Muhammad Ali” upon thanks of these services. “Muhammad Ali” troops were in Greece until 1830. (In this time, the Sultan recognized Greek independence under the pressure of great European powers, while the earlier; “Muhammad Ali” had submitted their demands without consultation with the Sultan)
Until the conquest of Athens, “Muhammad Ali” was known as the governor of Sultan and it was the perfect opportunity to establish his authority bases in the area without interference from the Ottoman Empire and army.
In early 1830s, “Muhammad Ali” divulged his inner hostility and his independent allegations against Ottoman state and he was considered as the most horrendous treat. “Muhammad Ali” military invasion to Ottoman Empire was begun in 1832. In this year, his army occupied the port of Acre (on May 28) under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha, and it captured out Sidon, Tripoli, Beirut and Damascus (on June 18) with the assistance of “Bashir Shihab II”, the Amir of Lebanon (1788-1840). “Mahmoud II”, the Ottoman Sultan (1808-1839) called “Muhammad Ali” as a rebel and ousted him from all his positions. Expeditionary Ottoman troops were defeated by “Muhammad Ali” army near Antioch (early of July) and the next troops were also defeated under the command of “Rashid Mohamed Rashid”, the chief minister, in Konya, on December 21 and the chief minister was even captured. At this time, the governments of France and Britain were calmly watching “Muhammad Ali” army which it was marching to Anatolia. Inevitably “Mahmoud II” had to appeal to “Nicholas I”, Tsar of Russia, despite of the fact that two governments had spent a fierce battle shortly before (1828-1829). However, the powerful victorious Russia did not want to collapse of Ottoman state and besides it could not tolerate the presence of suspicious adventurer near its borders. In fact, this was a conflict between the “Nicolas I” and the West European powers that saved the existence of Ottoman Empire and it even postponed its collapse nearly eight decades. The entry of Russian militants into the Ottoman (December, 1832) and entry of Russian fleet to Bosporus (February, 1833) jeopardized Britain and France and so they entered to the scene as mediators. In this complex and insidious game, the policy of Britain and France, by the leadership of “Louis-Philippe”, was expulsion of Russian troops from the territories of the Ottoman Empire and obtaining more concessions in favor of “Muhammad Ali”.
The wardenship of Ottoman delegation team with “Ibrahim Pasha”, the son of “Muhammad Ali” was given to a young statesman namely “Mustafa Rashid Effendi” who was well-known personality as “Mustafa Rashid Pasha” in the modern history of the Ottoman Empire. The role of “Mustafa Rashid” in the negotiations should be considered. According to the Treaty signed between the Ottoman Cabinet and “Ibrahim Pasha” (On March 29, 1833), the governance of Damascus and Aleppo and Jeddah and even the ruling of Aden were all awarded to “Ibrahim Pasha”; and “Muhammad Ali” was recognized as the ruler of Egypt and Crete once again. “Mustafa Rashid” acted a performance in the favor of “Muhammad Ali” in these negotiations, and it is expressed that even granting of ruling power of Aden to “Ibrahim Pasha” was without the permission of the Sultan. “Stanford Shaw” writes: “This action infuriated the Sultan as he issued the murder of Mustafa Rashid, but through the intercession of his political allies, he condoned him from execution”.
Then “Mohammad Ali Pasha” could recognize his controlling over the main parts of Arabic territories, and charged a top responsibility in a vast government which was along with from Hejaz to the east of Anatolia and Sudan.
The second rebellion of “Muhammad Ali Pasha” was begun against the Ottoman Empire in 1839 and it was a short time after the trip of “Moses Monte Fiore”, brother-in-law and partner “Nathan Rothschild”, to Egypt.
This was the second trip of Monte Fiore to Egypt. The first trip was in 1827 and now, in the second trip, Monte Fiore had the title of “London’s sheriff”, and he was considered as Muhammad Ali’s friend. Jewish Encyclopedia writes that the purpose of this visit was purchase of Palestinian territories from “Muhammad Ali”, they even dealt, but the agreement was not taken place Palestinian because “Muhammad Ali” had not Palestinian territories in his control. According to “Nahum Sokolow”, “Monte Fiore” entered the port of Alexandria on 13 July 1838 and he was warmly welcomed by “Mohammad Ali Pasha”. “Muhammad Ali Pasha” listened to Monte Fiore’s plans carefully and he promised any amount of land that the Jews would ask him, it was awarded to them, and any governors that they would want them to be, they could appoint them in rural Palestinian territories and he would do everything which was in his power to realize this plan. Then he ordered “Burghas Bey”, his finance minister, to write down the issues to confirm them.
It seemed a new era rising for Jews in the Holy Land. Sir Moses returned to England with a heart full of hopes and he prepared himself to begin his project….
“Sokolow” has not explained the details of the plan, but the contents of his book make clear that the problem was not limited to purchase of Palestinian territories simply and at this time, the plan of Syria’s independence was on the table in the Jewish circles and colonial circles of Britain (In the division of the Ottoman Empire, the province of Palestine was a part of Syria). In another chapter, entitled “The Syrian issue”, “Sokolw” writes:
“[Now] the idea of revival of Israel has become a potential issue of day, thought that was respectable not only for dreamers and essayist and litterateurs but also for any person who believed in the Bible and who loved liberty. If only five European powers agreed that to resolve the “East issue” based on Syria's independence, implementation of the details of plan was easy. France certainly was agreed in favor of such this plan. The moneys that Ottoman Empire would demand, it could be provided by the sources in Syria as well as financial assistance of the Jews [For agreeing to independence of Syria and Palestine]. Financial assistance of the Jews could be considered as their compensation for their settlement in Syria. This agreement would make pleasure all the powers interested in the region. “Muhammad Ali” could become a hereditary ruler of Egypt, the satisfaction of France could be provided, and finally the Jews could return to their homeland… The Jews could begin their emigration to Syria from all over the world. They were the tools to realize the civilization in the migration and they could establish the cores of European institutions…”
If we meditate on the above statements, it will be clear that this project was associated before the invasion of “Muhammad Ali” in 1839, when he was not still the hereditary ruler in Egypt. Is not the plan of the Jewish oligarchies and colonial circles of Britain which Monte Fiore stressed when he visited ‘Muhammad Ali” in July of 1838?
After the trip of “Monte Fiore” to Egypt and his meeting with “Mohammad Ali”, a mysterious movement was begun which it had definitive consequences in the late history of the Middle East and indeed it must be assessed as a turning point in the history of the region:
“Muhammad Ali” emitted his one hundred thousand army to occupy the northern territories of Syria and he announced at the meeting with ambassadors of great European powers; if Sultan would not award the lifetime governance of all Syria’s territories to him and would not recognize his hereditary ruling over Egypt, he would declare independence. So “Muhammad Ali” severely threatened Ottoman state once again.
In this complex issue, outward appearance was that French was supporting “Muhammad Ali Pasha” while England supporting Ottoman, and this created tensions in relationships between the two countries that only were unraveled by the dismissal of Thiers and appointment of Guizot in the French government.
At the same time, relationships of “Thiers”, unlike “Guizot”, was unfriendly with “Baron James Rothschild”. It is claimed that Rothschild would not agree with radical policies of “Thiers” because this policy was towards the hostility to Eastern diplomacy of England. Apparently “James Rothschild” tried to end the controversy between France and Britain and it raised the protest of political circles supporting “Thiers” against him. For example, on October 14, 1840; “Le Constitutionnel” newspaper that supported “Thiers”, wrote:
“What right does the financial authority interfere in our affairs? What does he do to France's decisions? Should we let his financial interests to humiliate our financial interests?”
In our view, the fact is that “Thiers” called for the establishment of a Christian state affiliated to France in Syria and Palestine, while “Palmerstone” followed the establishment of a Jewish state in the same area. On 19th of April, 1840 “Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums”, The Jewish newspaper in Germany, wrote:
“Monsieur “de Lamartine” calls to establish a Christian reign in the land of Jordan and Lebanon hillside. If Jerusalem, the holy city, is under French control, France will concede the rest of the world for Britain and Russia. But the main problem is that “Lord Palmerstone” has chosen the same area”.
The place which the prominent parliament member [of France] dreamed to establish a Christian state in it was the same place that “Lord Palmerstone” has chosen to establish a Jewish state.
So when the policies of “Thiers” caused to embolden “Muhammad Ali” and to riot in the area were desirable for the Jewish oligarchies and when they prevented to implement the longtime plans, they were undesirable.
Then the historians write that Rothschild’s supporters finally succeeded with the help of “Leopold”, Kingdom of Belgium, to defeat Thiers’ policies. ‘Louis-Philippe” intervened and prevented the continuation of the reckless actions of his prime minister. “Leopold”, the founder of the current Belgian royal family, had an important position in European politics in this era because as we know, he was the uncle of Queen Victoria and groom of “Louis Philippe” and however, he had closest relationships with the Jewish plutocrats.
These events coincided with mysterious activity of “Sir Stratford Canning” and his partners in Ottoman era. It is expressed that “Canning” advocated British government to support Ottoman for Russia’s and Muhammad Ali Pasha's expansionist movements. Despite of this claim, we know that “Palmerstone” placed “Mahmoud II” under “severe diplomatic pressure” in order to give concessions to “Muhammad Ali Pasha”.
Thus, the Sultan issued an order which confirmed ruling of “Muhammad Ali” not only over Egypt and Crete, but also in Syria, Damascus, Tripoli, Aleppo, and Adrianople. It was decided that he maintained the governance during his lifetime, but it was not guaranteed to inherit by Ibrahim or his other successors after his death.
Concessions set forth in this order were not enough for “Muhammad Ali”. Shortly after, he began his military invasion. In the beguiling story, commander of Ottoman navy surrounded his formidable fleet to “Muhammad Ali” in Alexandria, and in June 24, 1839, he defeated hardly the heads of Sultan troops, who had been lured by “Egyptian gold coins”, in the region of “Nezib”. During these humiliating incidents, “Mahmoud II” died in July 1, 1839. “Guizot” wrote in his memoirs that Ottoman state lost its King, fleet, and troops within three weeks.
After the death of “Mahmoud II”, his 16-year-old boy, “Abdul Majid” (1839 -1861) was the Ottoman’s Sultan. Abdul Majid’s appointment was at a time when the Jews and colonial oligarchies of London had overt and covert a sustainable position in the Ottoman court. “Lord Ross A. Keane” stresses “Abdul Majid” as a “disciple” of “Sir Stratford Canning” and adds:
“Stratford Canning made a very close relationship with “Abdul Majid” which was uncommon between an ambassador and a King and “Stratford” had a lot of influence on his policies”.
In this time of “Louis Philippe” was a supporter of “Muhammad Ali”, and “Palmerstone” was an intermediary between Ottoman and Egypt! Finally, representatives of four major European powers (Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia) gathered at the London Conference (July 12, 1840) headed by “Palmerstone”, made a peace agreement between “Mohammad Ali Pasha” and Ottoman. They recommended that if “Muhammad Ali” withdraws from Syria, he will be recognized as “hereditary Pasha of Egypt and as “Pasha of Syria” during his life. At the beginning, “Muhammad Ali” pretended to refuse British proposals, but after flaming of revolt of Wahhabis in Saudi Arabia, fall of Thiers’ cabinet (October 12, 1840), which was known as a staunch supporter of “Muhammad Ali”, the invasion of Britain’s fleet to northern parts of Palestine and the capture of Acre port (November 3, 1840), and a little later in Haifa, and the threat of attack to port of Alexandria, he agreed Britain’s proposals. Respectively, on February 13, 1841, in an order, “Abdul Majid” recognized Muhammad Ali’s and his family's hereditary government in Egypt.
In this case, “Mustafa Rashid Pasha”, who was Ottoman ambassador in Paris, played a mysterious and effective role. “Rashid” was later (1846) Ottoman’s chancellor and a long period of absolute domination of pro-Western bureaucrats in Ottoman Empire was begun. During the reign of “Abdul Majid”, dominance of Britain in political structure of Ottoman and movement of Masonic organizations in this country were increased unprecedentedly. During this period, Ottoman land was being undoubtedly invaded by the incursion of adventurers and Jewish or European financial swindlers and it caused that the country became as the large debtor of the West.
The consequence of these mysterious events, which are like as a complex scenario, on the one hand, it was arbitrary independence of Muhammad Ali’s family in Egypt, that is considered as one of the most corrupt and pro-Western governments in the Muslim world; and on the other hand, the unprecedented dominance of Mason politicians and affiliates to Jewish and colonial oligarchies of Britain on political structure of Ottoman; and Britain pretended as an ally and a protector of integrity of Ottoman in the issue of Muhammad Ali’s invasion to northern of Syria.
The mysterious role of Jewish plutocrats in above events could be particularly found in an event which is known as “Damascus Affair”.
At a time when the northern parts of Syria were invaded by “Muhammad Ali Pasha”, on February 5, 1840, an Italian priest of the Catholic Church, from the sect of “Capuchin”, called “Thomas”, was disappeared with his Muslim servant, “Ibrahim Amara”. It is believed that this Christian missionary engaged in trade suspicious activities. Immediately, the rumors going around that “Thomas” and “Abraham” were killed by Damascus Jews. “Sharif Pasha”, the ruler of the city, with “Ratti Mentone”, a French consul, started a wide research to find murderers. A Jew named “Solomon Negrin” was arrested and he admitted that victims were murdered by seven Jewish people in home of a Jew called “David Harari”. These Jews were arrested. It is said that two detainees died under torture, two other became “Muslim” for their lives and others were forced to admit. A Muslim servant of “David Harari” claimed that “Ibrahim Amara” was murdered at the home of a Jewish person, “Meir Farhi” of several heads of Jews and Jews of Damascus had been murdered. These people were also arrested. One of them, named Isaac Levy Picciotto, a citizen of Austria. For this reason, Consul of Austria, the United Kingdom and the United States in favor of the detainees arrived on the scene. Shortly after Thomas and Ibrahim Amara apparently bones were discovered in the home of the Jewish people and Sharif Pasha to the arrest of Jews began.