The rule of the Ottoman Caliphs (1)

1. Sociology of Ottoman
By the least examine in the structure of Ottoman society, constitution of authoritarian rule can be specified with the rule of Sultan and ideology derived from the principles of Sunni Islam that is characterized by its infrastructure.
Sultan Abdul Hamid in his book, political memories, says:
"The only force that can keep us alive is Islam. We contrary to what Fouad said are not dying people, but on the contrary, we are alive and strong nation, we must show our sincerity to our great religion."
therefore, the basis of thoughts, actions and political behavior of rulers in the Ottoman Empire has been Islamic basis, and if in some cases it was compromised was due to moral corruption and lack of commitment and individual disability of kings of the implementation of Islamic laws and principles that it cannot absolutely know them in total process of ruling of “Ottoman".
As mentioned in previous articles, the Ottoman sultans until Selim I, knew themselves under the absolute caliphate of the Muslims’ caliph in "Baghdad" and saw themselves as executors of political orders of the caliph of the Muslims and received badges from Muslims’ Caliph. Moreover, after the merger of the caliphate in the Crown, they always used the Sheikh al-Islam’s position and knew themselves as functions of Sheikh al-Islam or Grand Mufti.
Shaykh al-Islams were the main chief of the scribes, Chief Justice and sometimes were the best adviser to the Sultan. Of course, they were selected by the chief minister of the court and by the king’s approval.
Seikh al-Islami position was comprised of sections:
- Judicial that performed administrative judicial services;
- Schools engaged in teaching;
- And the Muftis that were in charge religious advice and services.
The Shaykh al-Islam’s position had important functions in the Ottoman Empire from the mid-fifteenth century to the end of the life of this administration.
Sheikh al-Islams that can be called the Ottoman king's advisers were not considered as members of the Royal Court, but sometimes were invited to the meetings in the Court due to their knowledge. They were at the head of the Ottoman religious activities and had the right to dethrone the king by issuing Fatva (decree). They also played a role in political developments.
Islamic jurisprudences and Islamic principles extracted in the fatwas of Sheikh-al-Islams or their religious organization was based on Sunni sources, and of course some mystical tendencies were effective in determining the policies of the rulers before Sultan Selim, but certainly since the 15th century onwards, the powers of the religious authority was in hands of Sheikh al-Islams. This position has benefited with appropriate use of religious culture plays an essential role in maintaining national and cultural identity of the Ottoman society as the axis of unity between the people and the Sultan. It is noteworthy that the Ottoman sultans’ appropriate emphasis on religion had a very constructive and valuable role in the conquest of new lands and compliance of non-Islamic societies than the new government, while it was considered as a factor in direction of social cohesion between the old territories with new conquered territories.
After Shaykh al-Islam position that the rule had his legitimacy from it, the most powerful and closest elements to the rule of Soltani was the same civil and military community of personnel.
They had a strategic role in protecting the integrity and the monarchy of royal regime, and maintaining and developing the borders and territorial scopes and social discipline were depended on them.
Military men (Askaris) in the governmental structure were considered as the privileged class and had influence among others. Soldier (Askaris) class consisted of two main parts: the Seyfyeh and Qalamyeh.
Seyfyeh consisted of those who were under Ottoman rule and had administrative responsibility for defense matters. Qalamyeh also consisted of the court scribes who took command from head in the Humayun Divan (Sultan’s Court) and included treasury agencies. In Ottoman rule, executive Askaris outside the spectrum of scholars, since the first Morad that the system of servants was institutionalized were selected among them.
This category of the Ottoman society was considered as the property and slaves of Sultan. Another important social group who had superior position in Ottoman society was the rich class and the aristocracy, were among the people that were known often because of individuation and financial resources and were respected figures by public in the Ottoman state.
The dual role of Lords, sometimes as mediators of the relationship between the rulers and the kings with their people, had made a stable face in society, but after 1187SH. (1808 C.) their position and status was lost by Sultan Mahmoud II.
Another class of Ottoman society that most of population belonged to them was peasants, who are present in all social systems, and they are often overlooked. According to religious teachings in the Ottoman System, peasants were divided into two groups of Muslims and non-Muslims.
Muslims had the right to own private property and private lands, and endowed by providing financial payments. However, the non-Muslim peasants who were predominantly Christians paid religious taxes including tribute and ransom. Non-Muslims did not have the right to build or right of home ownership near Muslims’ mosques in the community of Ottoman. In the meantime, the Ottoman capital had special social conditions.
Life in "Istanbul" was safer, and nobody would not have died there of starvation as well. Religious foundations were naturally attracting immigrants and thousands of lives were provided by food portions contributing to Daralatams (only conqueror Daralatams used to feed thousands daily) or brief tuition which was provided to school students or mosques and shrines paid to "almsman".
Appropriate social conditions and affording public security from the government lead to attraction of immigrants and religious minorities to Istanbul and its population began to increase as it turned into a cosmopolitan city. This process resulted in Istanbul to take political nature gradually. Nevertheless, the political supports of conqueror Sultan Mehmet from presence of minority in the city after conquering it, was the main reason for this social process.
For this reason, the Jews were of those people who found Istanbul as a suitable city for accommodation. Istanbul's Jews were organized in communities and every community had a synagogue that it was considered as the religious and administrative units of it. In the mid-sixteenth century, 40-44 synagogues and communities existed in "Istanbul". In the year 552 AD. Marranos, under the patronage of Sultan, were deployed in Istanbul and the exchanger Marano family that had come from "Mendes", demanded to have authority in the in matters of finance of government and trade with Europe. Jews who were from "Spain" and "Italy", brought with them new techniques. . . Sephardi men who were economically much stronger than others, first took responsibility of warranty of the Ashkenazim and then Rumanyut men. In 1582, these three communities jointly requested Sultan to open a new cemetery in the "special dormitory". Jews increased in the Special Dormitory. In 1634 AD. (1255) the tax house in Istanbul belonged to Jews, and at the end of the same century, 5,000 Jews paid complications. In 1727 AD. Jews who lived outside the gates of the "Paliq" in a market near the mosque, were ordered to sell their possessions to the Muslims and move to ghettos. From now on, "special dormitory" became the main settlement of Istanbul’s Jews.
Evaluation of the Ottoman population statistics, at the end of Ottoman rule indicates that Jews and Protestants were growing in proportion in their population, and they have almost remained immune from security and military-political events; whereas, most injuries and adverse based on the population affected Muslims and have been exposed to greater risks due to their presence in war and disaster areas; however, due to their high birth rate than non-Muslims, somewhat this issue was compensated.
However, the combination of the Muslim Ottoman Empire, without counting residents of "Arabian Peninsula", "Eastern Anatolia" and "Libya" in the year of 1879 and 1285. Sun (1906) has been this way:

1906.	1879.	Row
15/518/478	14/111/945	1.muslims
2/833/370	2/569/912	2.Greeks
1/140/563	1/042/374	Armenian Orthodoxy
762/754	830/189	4.Blghary
256/003	215/425	5.Jewish
53/880	44/360	6.Protestant
332/569	236/102	7.other sects and religions
20/897/617	19/050/307	The total population

Birth rate in the range of Ottoman rule was only 75/3 percent annually. The birth rate of Muslims was slightly higher than other nations. The death rate was 12.2 percent, resulting in population growth rate is about 63/1%, i.e. only 000/310 people. In fact, population growth of Empire, particularly, during the reign of Abdul Hamid was less than the increase in population and in 1884. Population reached to 859/143/17 people. It means that in average the population increase in 7 percent. On the other hand, the population of the empire due to terrorist activities and losses in all sectors and elements of different population remained intact. If this issue is noted that during these years, 822/202 of the Muslim refugees arrived at the Empire (about 193/812 other people were imported to the Empire in the years 1878 and 1884) and other groups of a large number of Christians because of problems became refugees to "Macedonia" and "Bulgaria" and "Greece". The point will become clearer that Muslims hurt far more than non-Moslems in decline of population. Therefore, we can say that although the majority of Turkey's population was Muslims, most social benefits accrued to non-Muslims, because they were immune to any kind of aggression or coercion and violence in the shadow of Islamic laws.
2. Ottoman authoritarianism
With the Othman's death, his son, Orkhan, became his successor and head of the Ottoman Emirate. "Bursa" the center of state of "Bitinai of Byzantine Empire" was conquered by Orkhan in the year 705.SH (1326 AD). Orkhan after placing Bursa as his capital, for the first time he minted coins in his name, and turned Amir Neshini into an independent state and formed a trained, cohesive and organized army. During this period, the Ottoman Empire by strengthening the conflict parties in Europe kept himself away from conflicts and was trying to undermine competitors; thus it can be said that Orkhan was a dominant diplomat rather than a Ghazi.
Orkhan died in the 738. SH (1359 AD). While he managed the Ottoman to enter Europe during his rule with his wise policy and at the same time Janissary was formed by him as a bodyguard.
After the death of Orkhan, his youngest son, Murad, was the first Ottoman sultan. During his rule, he could expand the Ottoman possessions to "the Balkan Peninsula" and build the base of a great empire for five centuries. Since 739 SH (1360 AD) his invasion to Europe began, and Murat I turned Janissary into a paramilitary force that guarded the conquered territories whose lives were dedicated to military service under the command of Sultan. Many of these people were Christian slaves who later placed in the system of Ottoman rule and interfered in some issues. "Bulgaria", "Bosnia", "Albania", "Hungary" and "Danube" were from his conquests.
Morad I during the war with Serbs that led to their defeat and the victory of the Ottomans where he was the leader of the war, in the age of 70 was killed due to an assassination attempt in the year 768 SH (1389 AD).
After Morad, his eldest son, Bayazid I, that ruled from the year 768 SH (1389 AD) to 781 SH (1402 AD) became the Ottomans’ Sultan. He was a courageous warrior and had power in transmission of military from one continent to the other continent, which is why he was given the title of Yaldrem which means the lightning.
His major preoccupation was the war in Europe and passing from "Hungary" and "Danube". Bayazid that was able to dominate many territories during his campaigns in the "Anatolia", was powerless and failed in the dominion of the dissatisfied princes who were deposed from the government by him.
At the same time, among Tatars an individual named Timor Gurkani invaded the Ottoman Empire and took advantages of Bayazid’s mistakes in the East against him. In the summer of 781 SH (1402 AD), Bayezid was captured by Timur. Timur sacked all around the “Minor Asia ", but was not able to achieve Solomon the son of Bayazid.
Solomon went to Europe. Timor after the death of Bayazid in 782 SH (1403 AD) left the Ottoman Empire to go to "Samarkand". Timor died in the year 784 SH (1405 AD) and chaos engulfed his government. However, there were struggles among the four sons of Bayazid in seizing power until Moses, killed Solomon and he was killed by Muhammad.
Finally, in the year 792 SH (1413 AD) Chalabi Muhammad (Muhammad the first) could be replaced by his deposed father. He could dominate the land of "Anatolia" with the help of his Janissary and other scattered troops and restore the political unity to the Ottoman lands. During his eight years of rule by the year 800 SH (1421 AD) could revive the Ottoman dynasty and reaffirmed the foundations of empire.
Murad II after his father, Muhammad I, in 800 SH got to the throne and was able to be victorious over the enemies' conspiracies in Europe and Asia and could expand Ottoman borders with new conquests. He suppressed one of the claimants of the throne who had taken refuge to the emperor of "Byzantine", with the help of scholars and Janissary and for the first time, besieged "Constantinople" and shelled it, but could not enter it.
He initiated a "period of restoration" of the Ottoman rule in "Anatolia" and "Rommel", which lasted nearly for half a century. Finally, he died in 830 SH (1451 AD). His corps was buried in "Busra". Mehmed II, nicknamed Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror, after his father's death, immediately, went from "Mgtrya" to "Edirne" (Adria Nupel) and became his father’s substitute. Christian powers did not pay any attention or importance for him, who was 21 years old, and knew him as a raw and inexperienced boy, but he knew history well. Therefore, he organized an army of 120 thousand people. By his order, molders made more wrecking balls. Historians have narrated that a gigantic ball which was made on "Erdene" took two months to be brought to the battlefield by the help of 1000 military force and 150 war sailing had sieged the “Bosporus Strait" and "Dardanelles".
Devastating war occurred between the Ottoman Empire and the Byzantine, but Sultan Mehmet the conqueror had determined to conquer the "Constantinople" and after 65 days of war in the night of 29 Jumada Al-Awwal, of 8 June 832 AD. And, May 29, 1453 the armies of the Ottoman took the necessary weapons to the ditch and provided the final preparations for the attack. In the early morning, the king got up as well and said prayers, then crossed swords, rode the horses and his commanders were standing in line to attack. After a massive fire o artillery, which was started at daybreak, sieging troops went into action. Responsible people went close to the ramparts. The war was started simultaneously in all parts of Constantinople. By order of the king across the attack line using different means the attack’s song was played. Takbir’s sound was added to drums and band. "Sanjaq Sharif" was removed and had been mounted in sight of everyone." Sultan Muhammad associated his forces with mace to the edge of the ditch, and with the command of" The city is ours", issued the invasion of the" Gate of St Romanus" and the city was conquered.
The fall of the "Constantinople" city (Konstantynyeh) was signing the death warrant of the West Christian led by the Greeks. The Christian world after this defeat started moaning and called it as a historical lesion. The conquest was a turning point in the late middle Ages and the beginning of a Renaissance. Sultan the Conqueror was in sought to restore Constantinople which was renamed to "Istanbul", and because after the conquest nothing remained but scenes of destruction, with its palaces and other huge buildings that had been in ruins, of all those who had left the city, (mainly Orthodox) were asked to return immediately with promises of protection for their property and religion, tax breaks and government help to rebuild their homes and their shops.
By the Sultan’s command, affluent individuals, merchants and craftsmen from conquered cities were selected and were transferred to Istanbul to participate in the expansion of trade and industry. They included immigrants from "Salonica" with its large Jewish population and Jews of Europe in quite substantial scale.
Within twenty-five years, these Jewish immigrants, followed by Muslims and Christians, became the third major element of capital city in the framework of the nation. at later stages of King Mohammed, in his conquests, five thousand families came through "Tarabuzen" and its vicinity in addition to other families of "Anatolia" and "Moria" and "Aegean" islands which all were assigned certain neighborhoods in the city which they have named them in their home towns. At this time, the Church of "Sophia" After purification turned into the mosque of "Ayasofya". This Islamic behavior of Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror created the tendency of many Christians to convert Islam and created divisions between Churches of the East and the West.
Sultan Mohammad continued restructuring of Ottoman rule, did other conquests in "the Balkans" and "Anatolia" including "Mora" in the year 839 SH (1460 AD) spheres in 841 Sun (1462) and Albania in the year 842 SH (1463 AD). However, this Conqueror Sultan died in 860 SH (1481 AD) at the age of 49 years on the afternoon in the time of prayer. Bayazid II assumed the lead of the Ottoman Empire in 860 SH (1481 AD).
He, during his thirty-year period of rule sought to strengthen the state institutions and the reconstruction of the Ottoman army according to the model of Religious law. Exactly in the same time with Bayazid II’s government, Jews under the Spain’s Christians political and religious pressure were forced to leave the country in 1492. In fact, the inquisition against the Marranos (who were Jews that were apparently Christians) caused the expulsion and displacement of (Eastern) Sephardim’s Jews. But Sultan Bayazid’s welcoming of the Jewish exiles and refugees led them to the Islamic lands of Ottoman rule. With the passage of time, due to poor health condition of Sultan, his son, Yavozselim (stern Solomon) became in charge of the father’s government and went to "Istanbul" and attracted the support of Janissary, and later he went to "Crimea" and mobilized an army and then occupied "Edirne"(Adrianople). With the approval of Bayazid, based on abdicating the rule, Sultan Selim came to power in 891 Sun (1512). This Sultan was a religious fanatic and started fighting with Shiite Safavid and defeated Safavids in the battle of "Chalderan" in 893 Sun (1514).