Figurative language in Quran

 

Introduction

In the previous lesson, we pointed to one of the taxonomies of the language of Qoran, i.e., literal and figurative language. As it was discussed, by the literal meaning of the language of Qoran, we mean the consistency between words and their conforming meanings (Ma'ani Motabeqi). The language of Qoran is basically assumed to be literal; however, in some cases there might be some indicators which prove that a meaning other than the literal meaning (figurative, ironic, or metaphoric meanings) is intended. In this lesson, we will investigate the different types of figurative language and their existence in the language of Qoran.
First type: Figurative language and metaphor
There are three ways of using words in their meanings:
First, literal meaning: using a word with a meaning which is assigned for it (Mozuon Lah, i.e., determined for it), for example, using the word "Mohammad" for the prophet of Islam. Some have defined literal language in this way:
«الحقيقة هى اللفظ المستعمل فيما وضع له، فيشمل هذا الوضع، اللغوى و الشرعى و العرفى و الاصطلاحى.»
Second, figurative language: using a word with a meaning which is not assigned for it, but is appropriate for the real meaning of the word, for instance, using the word lion for a brave man.
Reminder: Using a word in its figurative meaning does not required the permission of who assigned the meaning, but it is used on the basis of the users' taste and semantic appropriateness.
Third, wrong use: employing a word in a meaning which is not determined for it and it has no relationship with the literal meaning, for example, using the word "God" for a "Sohrab", who is a person.
Signs of literal meaning
Sometimes, through the study of vocabulary or evidence from vocabulary specialists, one can learn that a word is determined for a certain meaning. Sometime the assigning of meaning is dubious and we don't know using the word in that meaning is literal or figurative language. In this case we need an indicator to recognize the literal meaning.
We can recognize the literal meaning in two ways:
First, Tabador, which is outpacing of specific meanings of a word without an indicator.
Second, Inaccuracy of Salb (words and sentences which leave out some meanings), and veracity of Haml Lafz bar Ma'na (determining a word for a meaning)

 

Seyvati (911 after Hegira) mentions that Imam Ezzoddin AbdalIslam wrote an exclusive book on the figurative language of Qoran, to which Seyvati added some additional points and entitled it «مجاز الفرسان الى مجاز القرآن».
He identified two types of figurative language:

1- Lexical figurative language, which is the figurative speech of Mofradat (arbitary words whose meaning is not dependent on word parts), that is, using a word in a meaning for which it is not assigned, which is of some types, for example, omission of redundant words (Hazf Ziadeh), using a word for the entire object instead of the word for a part (Etlaq Esm Kol bar Joz'), using a word for a part instead of a word for the entire object (Etlaq Esm Joz' bar Kol), using a proper noun instead of a common noun, using a common noun instead of a proper noun, using a Esmi Mlazoom (the noun whose existence causes the existence of a second noun) instead of the Esmi Lazem (the noun whose existence depends on the existence of the first noun) and vice a versa, using a causative noun (Esmi Mosabeb) instead of a caused noun (Esmi Sabab) and vice versa, calling something with a name for which it is and calling something with a name towards which it is, using Esmi Hal (the name of something which appears) instead of Esmi Mahal (the name of something which is a place for the appearing object, i.e., Esmi Hal) and vice versa, calling something with the name of an instrument, calling something with the name of its opposite, and etc.

For example,
... يَجْعَلُونَ أَصَبِعَهُمْ فِى ءَاذَانِهِم...
... فَبِمَا كَسَبَتْ أَيْدِيكُمْ...
... إِنَّا رَسُولُ رَبِ‏ّ الْعَلَمِينَ
... لَا يَجِدُونَ نِكَاحًا..

2- Intellectual figurative language, which is the same figurative language in combination or attributive figurative language. It tends to dress, that is, to attribute a verb or a semi-verb to something (subject or dummy subject) which is not equal to it but is from its constituents. In the example "The spring grew the plant", the spring is a place for growing the plant, not the cause of growing, but growing is attributed to the spring.

Another example:
... إِذَا تُلِيَتْ عَلَيْهِمْ ءَايَتُهُ‏و زَادَتْهُمْ إِيمَنًا...
Here, verses (Ayat) is the subject of the verb 'increasing faith', while the real agent is God and the verse is an instrument and medium.

The instruments of figurative language: in every figurative statement we need two things: 1- a Qarinehi Sarefeh (an indicator that distract the hearer from the literal meaning of a word and leads it towards the figurative meaning), which can be a lexical or semantic indicator, 2- the existence of alaqeh (relation) between figurative and literal meanings. By alaqeh, we mean a special relationship between the figurative and literal meanings. This relationship permits the use of a word in its figurative meaning. Otherwise, we are not allowed to use a word in meanings other than their literal meaning. Some kinds of relation are: adjacency, part and whole, causer and caused relations.

Metaphor: If the relation between the literal and figurative meanings is a similarity relationship, the figurative language is called a metaphor, for example, using the word 'lion' in the meaning of 'a brave man'. Therefore, metaphor is created on the basis of similarity, in other words, it is a shortened form of simile, and from among comparing parts, it only has the moshabbahon beh (compared to object) part and the other parts (compared object , aspect of similarity, and comparison words) are omitted. So in the example sentence "I saw a lion walking", if we intend to express all comparison parts we should say "I saw a man, brave like a lion, walking". Metaphor has three parts, which could be explained in the example sentence "I saw a lion walking", in the following way:
1- Mosta'ar (compared to), which is the word to which we have compared an entity (the word lion)
2- Mosta'aron Menh, which is the meaning of Moshabbahon beh (compared to) (Ma'nayeh Mozuon Lah, i.e., the determined meaning of the word lion, a predatory animal)
3- Mosta'aron Lah (compared of), which is the meaning of the compared object.

Mosta'aron Menh and Mosta'aron Lah are the two sides of a metaphor. The characteristic that is shared by the two, which in simile is called the aspect of similarity, here is named jame' (resemblance aspect). In this example, the quality of bravery is the jame' (the resemblance aspect).
There is disagreement on whether metaphor is a lexical or intellectual figurative language. The majority of them are called lexical figurative language. What they mean by intellectual figurative language (Majazi Aqlani) is not the commonly used intellectual figurative language (use of a verb or a semi-verb for something for which it was not assigned). But, they mean that what exists in metaphor is not a lexical modification but a kind of intellectual modification.

Examples:

1- «فَاصْدَعْ بِما تُؤْمَرُ وَ أَعْرِضْ عَنِ الْمُشْرِكين‏»
Explicitly express what for which you have a mission and turn your back on pagans

Fasda' «فاصدع»ْ is from lexical derivation sada' «صدع», which is used in the absolute meaning "to split" or "to split hard things". And since by splitting things , their inside is revealed, this word has also been used in the meanings 'demonstration', 'revelation', and 'exposure'.
In this verse, sad', which means 'breaking' or 'splitting hard things', is a metaphor for revealing and expressing religious teachings and regulations. Expressing God's regulations and rules for people is compared to splitting hard things and revealing their inside, then the compared-to object (moshabbahon beh) is mentioned and the compared object is omitted in the speech.

2- او من کان ميتا فاحييناه و جعلنا له نورا يمشي به في الناس کمن مثله في الظلمات ليس بخارج منها

In this verse, Ahya «احيا» (revival) is a metaphor for guidance and death is a metaphor for misdirection. Guidance is compared to revival and misdirection to death; in both cases the compared-to object is used, but the compared object is omitted.
Majaz Morsal: if the relation between literal and figurative meanings is something other than similarity, the metaphor is called Majaz Morsal. For instance,
I sent some eyes in that country «ارسلت العيون في البلد»
It is called Morsal, since it is absolute. That is, unlike metaphor, it is not bound to a special relation. In the sentence above, the word eyn (eye), whose literal meaning is eye, is used in the meaning of 'spy'. Here the relation between the literal and figurative meanings is the relation of part and whole. Spy is a person who has eyes. In this sentence, the indicator leading towards the figurative meaning is the expression "I sent" «ارسلت».

Hokm Majaz (the rule of figurative meaning): When a word is used in a figurative meaning, the same figurative meaning gets fixed, whether in rules or elsewhere.
To prove figurative meaning, we need distracter and determiner indicators (Qarineh Sarefeh and Qarineh Moayyeneh), that is, an indicator which proves that literal meaning is not intended and reveals the figurative meaning. Usually, here one indicator plays the role of the two indicators.

The second type: Irony

The word 'irony', denotatively means "to speak in a concealed manner" and connotatively, it refers to "an expression or a word from which the required (Lazem) or requiring (Malzoom) meaning is intended. That is, the word is used in its Ma'nayeh Mozuon Lah (i.e., the meaning for which the word is determined), but the intellectual required (Malzoom) meaning of the word is intended.

Seyvati states:
«ان الكناية ابلغ من التصريح، و عرّفها اهل البيان بانّها: لفظ اُريد به لازم معناه.»

Then he mentions the types of Irony, including:

1- Informing of magnificence and power, fore example
هُوَ الَّذِى خَلَقَكُم مِّن نَّفْسٍ وَ حِدَةٍ وَجَعَلَ مِنْهَا زَوْجَهَا...
The single entity «نفس واحدة» refers to Adam.

2- Replacing a word by a prettier one; for instance, in the verse above, his wife «زوجها», which refers to Eve.
3- Ignoring clarity because of vulgar words; for example, referring to Jema' (sexual intercourse) by Molabeseh (changing clothes), Mobashere (interaction), Efza' (intercourse), Rafth Dokhool (penetration), and Ser (secret).
4- For exaggeration, for example... بَلْ يَدَاهُ مَبْسُوطَتَانِ...
Which implies the magnitude of divine generosity.

Hokmi Kenayeh (the rule of irony): They hesitate on the ironic meanings until the concealed meaning of the verse is revealed by evidence. Here, too, we need an indicator to make sure that ironic meanings of words were intended by the speaker, and if the lazem (an object whose existence required the existence of the other object, the malzoom) of the meaning is proved, the ironic meaning is as valid as conforming (i.e., determined) meanings (Ma'ani Motabeqi). Because, in its place, it was proven that Delalat Eltezami (the reference of a word to something outside its meaning) is considered as belonging to lexical implications (Delatathay Lafzi) and Zavaher Kalam (appearance of speech).

Irony is like a lie:
There are two views on the existence of figurative language in Qoran. Seyvati states: The majority of scholars assume that figurative language is used in Qoran, but a group of scholars have refused the existence of figurative language in Qoran, which includes Zaherieh, Ebn Olqas from Shafeiis, and Ebn Khuizmandad from Malekis.
They argue that irony is akin to lie and Qoran is void of it. The speaker does not turn to irony except when expressing reality is demanding for him and he exploits irony, and this is impossible for God. This skepticism is invalid, because if irony is removed from Qoran, some part of its beauty goes away and followers of eloquence agree that irony is more eloquent than literal language. Therefore, figurative language is not the same as lie. Dr. Sajedi noticed the above skepticisms regarding figurative language, metaphor, simile, and allegory, and considering their relation with moral-awareness bestowing of statements in Qoran, offered the following reply:
Unlike what many scholars conceive, the use of words in meanings other their literal meanings (figurative language, metaphor, simile, allegory) in some verses of Qoran cannot be considered as untruth of the statements and as an indication that they are not awareness-bestowing.